Introduction

One of Rust's aims, as a system programming language, is to interoperate well with C code.

We'll start with an example. It's a bit bigger than usual, and contains a number of new concepts. We'll go over it one piece at a time.

This is a program that uses OpenSSL's SHA1 function to compute the hash of its first command-line argument, which it then converts to a hexadecimal string and prints to standard output. If you have the OpenSSL libraries installed, it should 'just work'.

extern mod std;
use libc::c_uint;

extern mod crypto {
    fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: c_uint, out: *u8) -> *u8;
}

fn as_hex(data: ~[u8]) -> ~str {
    let mut acc = ~"";
    for data.each |byte| { acc += fmt!("%02x", byte as uint); }
    return acc;
}

fn sha1(data: ~str) -> ~str unsafe {
    let bytes = str::to_bytes(data);
    let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes),
                            vec::len(bytes) as c_uint, ptr::null());
    return as_hex(vec::raw::from_buf(hash, 20u));
}

fn main(args: ~[~str]) {
    io::println(sha1(args[1]));
}

Foreign modules

Before we can call SHA1, we have to declare it. That is what this part of the program is responsible for:

extern mod crypto {
    fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8;
}

An extern module declaration containing function signatures introduces the functions listed as foreign functions, that are implemented in some other language (usually C) and accessed through Rust's foreign function interface (FFI). An extern module like this is called a foreign module, and implicitly tells the compiler to link with a library with the same name as the module, and that it will find the foreign functions in that library.

In this case, it'll change the name crypto to a shared library name in a platform-specific way (libcrypto.so on Linux, for example), and link that in. If you want the module to have a different name from the actual library, you can use the "link_name" attribute, like:

#[link_name = "crypto"]
extern mod something {
    fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8;
}

Foreign calling conventions

Most foreign code will be C code, which usually uses the cdecl calling convention, so that is what Rust uses by default when calling foreign functions. Some foreign functions, most notably the Windows API, use other calling conventions, so Rust provides a way to hint to the compiler which is expected by using the "abi" attribute:

#[cfg(target_os = "win32")]
#[abi = "stdcall"]
extern mod kernel32 {
    fn SetEnvironmentVariableA(n: *u8, v: *u8) -> int;
}

The "abi" attribute applies to a foreign module (it can not be applied to a single function within a module), and must be either "cdecl" or "stdcall". Other conventions may be defined in the future.

Unsafe pointers

The foreign SHA1 function is declared to take three arguments, and return a pointer.

# extern mod crypto {
fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: libc::c_uint, out: *u8) -> *u8;
# }

When declaring the argument types to a foreign function, the Rust compiler has no way to check whether your declaration is correct, so you have to be careful. If you get the number or types of the arguments wrong, you're likely to get a segmentation fault. Or, probably even worse, your code will work on one platform, but break on another.

In this case, SHA1 is defined as taking two unsigned char* arguments and one unsigned long. The rust equivalents are *u8 unsafe pointers and an uint (which, like unsigned long, is a machine-word-sized type).

Unsafe pointers can be created through various functions in the standard lib, usually with unsafe somewhere in their name. You can dereference an unsafe pointer with * operator, but use caution—unlike Rust's other pointer types, unsafe pointers are completely unmanaged, so they might point at invalid memory, or be null pointers.

Unsafe blocks

The sha1 function is the most obscure part of the program.

# pub mod crypto {
#   pub fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8 { out }
# }
# fn as_hex(data: ~[u8]) -> ~str { ~"hi" }
fn sha1(data: ~str) -> ~str {
    unsafe {
        let bytes = str::to_bytes(data);
        let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes),
                                vec::len(bytes), ptr::null());
        return as_hex(vec::raw::from_buf(hash, 20u));
    }
}

Firstly, what does the unsafe keyword at the top of the function mean? unsafe is a block modifier—it declares the block following it to be known to be unsafe.

Some operations, like dereferencing unsafe pointers or calling functions that have been marked unsafe, are only allowed inside unsafe blocks. With the unsafe keyword, you're telling the compiler 'I know what I'm doing'. The main motivation for such an annotation is that when you have a memory error (and you will, if you're using unsafe constructs), you have some idea where to look—it will most likely be caused by some unsafe code.

Unsafe blocks isolate unsafety. Unsafe functions, on the other hand, advertise it to the world. An unsafe function is written like this:

unsafe fn kaboom() { ~"I'm harmless!"; }

This function can only be called from an unsafe block or another unsafe function.

Pointer fiddling

The standard library defines a number of helper functions for dealing with unsafe data, casting between types, and generally subverting Rust's safety mechanisms.

Let's look at our sha1 function again.

# pub mod crypto {
#     pub fn SHA1(src: *u8, sz: uint, out: *u8) -> *u8 { out }
# }
# fn as_hex(data: ~[u8]) -> ~str { ~"hi" }
# fn x(data: ~str) -> ~str {
# unsafe {
let bytes = str::to_bytes(data);
let hash = crypto::SHA1(vec::raw::to_ptr(bytes),
                        vec::len(bytes), ptr::null());
return as_hex(vec::raw::from_buf(hash, 20u));
# }
# }

The str::to_bytes function is perfectly safe: it converts a string to a [u8]. This byte array is then fed to vec::raw::to_ptr, which returns an unsafe pointer to its contents.

This pointer will become invalid as soon as the vector it points into is cleaned up, so you should be very careful how you use it. In this case, the local variable bytes outlives the pointer, so we're good.

Passing a null pointer as the third argument to SHA1 makes it use a static buffer, and thus save us the effort of allocating memory ourselves. ptr::null is a generic function that will return an unsafe null pointer of the correct type (Rust generics are awesome like that—they can take the right form depending on the type that they are expected to return).

Finally, vec::raw::from_buf builds up a new [u8] from the unsafe pointer that was returned by SHA1. SHA1 digests are always twenty bytes long, so we can pass 20u for the length of the new vector.

Passing structures

C functions often take pointers to structs as arguments. Since Rust structs are binary-compatible with C structs, Rust programs can call such functions directly.

This program uses the POSIX function gettimeofday to get a microsecond-resolution timer.

extern mod std;
use libc::c_ulonglong;

struct timeval {
    mut tv_sec: c_ulonglong,
    mut tv_usec: c_ulonglong
}

#[nolink]
extern mod lib_c {
    fn gettimeofday(tv: *timeval, tz: *()) -> i32;
}
fn unix_time_in_microseconds() -> u64 unsafe {
    let x = timeval {
        mut tv_sec: 0 as c_ulonglong,
        mut tv_usec: 0 as c_ulonglong
    };
    lib_c::gettimeofday(ptr::addr_of(&x), ptr::null());
    return (x.tv_sec as u64) * 1000_000_u64 + (x.tv_usec as u64);
}

# fn main() { assert fmt!("%?", unix_time_in_microseconds()) != ~""; }

The #[nolink] attribute indicates that there's no foreign library to link in. The standard C library is already linked with Rust programs.

A timeval, in C, is a struct with two 32-bit integers. Thus, we define a struct type with the same contents, and declare gettimeofday to take a pointer to such a struct.

The second argument to gettimeofday (the time zone) is not used by this program, so it simply declares it to be a pointer to the unit type. Since all null pointers have the same representation regardless of their referent type, this is safe.

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