% Error Handling > The best-laid plans of mice and men > Often go awry > > "Tae a Moose", Robert Burns Sometimes, things just go wrong. It's important to have a plan for when the inevitable happens. Rust has rich support for handling errors that may (let's be honest: will) occur in your programs. There are two main kinds of errors that can occur in your programs: failures, and panics. Let's talk about the difference between the two, and then discuss how to handle each. Then, we'll discuss upgrading failures to panics. # Failure vs. Panic Rust uses two terms to differentiate between two forms of error: failure, and panic. A *failure* is an error that can be recovered from in some way. A *panic* is an error that cannot be recovered from. What do we mean by "recover"? Well, in most cases, the possibility of an error is expected. For example, consider the `parse` function: ```ignore "5".parse(); ``` This method converts a string into another type. But because it's a string, you can't be sure that the conversion actually works. For example, what should this convert to? ```ignore "hello5world".parse(); ``` This won't work. So we know that this function will only work properly for some inputs. It's expected behavior. We call this kind of error a *failure*. On the other hand, sometimes, there are errors that are unexpected, or which we cannot recover from. A classic example is an `assert!`: ```rust # let x = 5; assert!(x == 5); ``` We use `assert!` to declare that something is true. If it's not true, something is very wrong. Wrong enough that we can't continue with things in the current state. Another example is using the `unreachable!()` macro: ```rust,ignore use Event::NewRelease; enum Event { NewRelease, } fn probability(_: &Event) -> f64 { // real implementation would be more complex, of course 0.95 } fn descriptive_probability(event: Event) -> &'static str { match probability(&event) { 1.00 => "certain", 0.00 => "impossible", 0.00 ... 0.25 => "very unlikely", 0.25 ... 0.50 => "unlikely", 0.50 ... 0.75 => "likely", 0.75 ... 1.00 => "very likely", } } fn main() { println!("{}", descriptive_probability(NewRelease)); } ``` This will give us an error: ```text error: non-exhaustive patterns: `_` not covered [E0004] ``` While we know that we've covered all possible cases, Rust can't tell. It doesn't know that probability is between 0.0 and 1.0. So we add another case: ```rust use Event::NewRelease; enum Event { NewRelease, } fn probability(_: &Event) -> f64 { // real implementation would be more complex, of course 0.95 } fn descriptive_probability(event: Event) -> &'static str { match probability(&event) { 1.00 => "certain", 0.00 => "impossible", 0.00 ... 0.25 => "very unlikely", 0.25 ... 0.50 => "unlikely", 0.50 ... 0.75 => "likely", 0.75 ... 1.00 => "very likely", _ => unreachable!() } } fn main() { println!("{}", descriptive_probability(NewRelease)); } ``` We shouldn't ever hit the `_` case, so we use the `unreachable!()` macro to indicate this. `unreachable!()` gives a different kind of error than `Result`. Rust calls these sorts of errors *panics*. # Handling errors with `Option` and `Result` The simplest way to indicate that a function may fail is to use the `Option` type. For example, the `find` method on strings attempts to find a pattern in a string, and returns an `Option`: ```rust let s = "foo"; assert_eq!(s.find('f'), Some(0)); assert_eq!(s.find('z'), None); ``` This is appropriate for the simplest of cases, but doesn't give us a lot of information in the failure case. What if we wanted to know _why_ the function failed? For this, we can use the `Result` type. It looks like this: ```rust enum Result { Ok(T), Err(E) } ``` This enum is provided by Rust itself, so you don't need to define it to use it in your code. The `Ok(T)` variant represents a success, and the `Err(E)` variant represents a failure. Returning a `Result` instead of an `Option` is recommended for all but the most trivial of situations. Here's an example of using `Result`: ```rust #[derive(Debug)] enum Version { Version1, Version2 } #[derive(Debug)] enum ParseError { InvalidHeaderLength, InvalidVersion } fn parse_version(header: &[u8]) -> Result { if header.len() < 1 { return Err(ParseError::InvalidHeaderLength); } match header[0] { 1 => Ok(Version::Version1), 2 => Ok(Version::Version2), _ => Err(ParseError::InvalidVersion) } } let version = parse_version(&[1, 2, 3, 4]); match version { Ok(v) => { println!("working with version: {:?}", v); } Err(e) => { println!("error parsing header: {:?}", e); } } ``` This function makes use of an enum, `ParseError`, to enumerate the various errors that can occur. The [`Debug`](../std/fmt/trait.Debug.html) trait is what lets us print the enum value using the `{:?}` format operation. # Non-recoverable errors with `panic!` In the case of an error that is unexpected and not recoverable, the `panic!` macro will induce a panic. This will crash the current thread, and give an error: ```rust,ignore panic!("boom"); ``` gives ```text thread '
' panicked at 'boom', hello.rs:2 ``` when you run it. Because these kinds of situations are relatively rare, use panics sparingly. # Upgrading failures to panics In certain circumstances, even though a function may fail, we may want to treat it as a panic instead. For example, `io::stdin().read_line(&mut buffer)` returns a `Result`, when there is an error reading the line. This allows us to handle and possibly recover from error. If we don't want to handle this error, and would rather just abort the program, we can use the `unwrap()` method: ```rust,ignore io::stdin().read_line(&mut buffer).unwrap(); ``` `unwrap()` will `panic!` if the `Result` is `Err`. This basically says "Give me the value, and if something goes wrong, just crash." This is less reliable than matching the error and attempting to recover, but is also significantly shorter. Sometimes, just crashing is appropriate. There's another way of doing this that's a bit nicer than `unwrap()`: ```rust,ignore let mut buffer = String::new(); let num_bytes_read = io::stdin().read_line(&mut buffer) .ok() .expect("Failed to read line"); ``` `ok()` converts the `Result` into an `Option`, and `expect()` does the same thing as `unwrap()`, but takes a message. This message is passed along to the underlying `panic!`, providing a better error message if the code errors. # Using `try!` When writing code that calls many functions that return the `Result` type, the error handling can be tedious. The `try!` macro hides some of the boilerplate of propagating errors up the call stack. It replaces this: ```rust use std::fs::File; use std::io; use std::io::prelude::*; struct Info { name: String, age: i32, rating: i32, } fn write_info(info: &Info) -> io::Result<()> { let mut file = File::create("my_best_friends.txt").unwrap(); if let Err(e) = writeln!(&mut file, "name: {}", info.name) { return Err(e) } if let Err(e) = writeln!(&mut file, "age: {}", info.age) { return Err(e) } if let Err(e) = writeln!(&mut file, "rating: {}", info.rating) { return Err(e) } return Ok(()); } ``` With this: ```rust use std::fs::File; use std::io; use std::io::prelude::*; struct Info { name: String, age: i32, rating: i32, } fn write_info(info: &Info) -> io::Result<()> { let mut file = File::create("my_best_friends.txt").unwrap(); try!(writeln!(&mut file, "name: {}", info.name)); try!(writeln!(&mut file, "age: {}", info.age)); try!(writeln!(&mut file, "rating: {}", info.rating)); return Ok(()); } ``` Wrapping an expression in `try!` will result in the unwrapped success (`Ok`) value, unless the result is `Err`, in which case `Err` is returned early from the enclosing function. It's worth noting that you can only use `try!` from a function that returns a `Result`, which means that you cannot use `try!` inside of `main()`, because `main()` doesn't return anything. `try!` makes use of [`From`](../std/convert/trait.From.html) to determine what to return in the error case.