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* [Iterators](iterators.md)
* [Concurrency](concurrency.md)
* [Error Handling](error-handling.md)
* [Choosing your Guarantees](choosing-your-guarantees.md)
* [FFI](ffi.md)
* [Borrow and AsRef](borrow-and-asref.md)
* [Release Channels](release-channels.md)

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% Choosing your Guarantees
One important feature of Rust as language is that it lets us control the costs and guarantees
of a program.
There are various “wrapper type” abstractions in the Rust standard library which embody
a multitude of tradeoffs between cost, ergonomics, and guarantees. Many let one choose between
run time and compile time enforcement. This section will explain a few selected abstractions in
detail.
Before proceeding, it is highly recommended that one reads about [ownership][ownership] and
[borrowing][borrowing] in Rust.
[ownership]: ownership.html
[borrowing]: references-and-borrowing.html
# Basic pointer types
## `Box<T>`
[`Box<T>`][box] is pointer which is &ldquo;owned&rdquo;, or a &ldquo;box&rdquo;. While it can hand
out references to the contained data, it is the only owner of the data. In particular, when
something like the following occurs:
```rust
let x = Box::new(1);
let y = x;
// x no longer accessible here
```
Here, the box was _moved_ into `y`. As `x` no longer owns it, the compiler will no longer allow the
programmer to use `x` after this. A box can similarly be moved _out_ of a function by returning it.
When a box (that hasn't been moved) goes out of scope, destructors are run. These destructors take
care of deallocating the inner data.
This is a zero-cost abstraction for dynamic allocation. If you want to allocate some memory on the
heap and safely pass around a pointer to that memory, this is ideal. Note that you will only be
allowed to share references to this by the regular borrowing rules, checked at compile time.
[box]: ../std/boxed/struct.Box.html
## `&T` and `&mut T`
These are immutable and mutable references respectively. They follow the &lquo;read-write lock&rquo;
pattern, such that one may either have only one mutable reference to some data, or any number of
immutable ones, but not both. This guarantee is enforced at compile time, and has no visible cost at
runtime. In most cases these two pointer types suffice for sharing cheap references between sections
of code.
These pointers cannot be copied in such a way that they outlive the lifetime associated with them.
## `*const T` and `*mut T`
These are C-like raw pointers with no lifetime or ownership attached to them. They just point to
some location in memory with no other restrictions. The only guarantee that these provide is that
they cannot be dereferenced except in code marked `unsafe`.
These are useful when building safe, low cost abstractions like `Vec<T>`, but should be avoided in
safe code.
## `Rc<T>`
This is the first wrapper we will cover that has a runtime cost.
[`Rc<T>`][rc] is a reference counted pointer. In other words, this lets us have multiple "owning"
pointers to the same data, and the data will be dropped (destructors will be run) when all pointers
are out of scope.
Internally, it contains a shared &ldquo;reference count&rdquo; (also called &ldquo;refcount&rdquo;),
which is incremented each time the `Rc` is cloned, and decremented each time one of the `Rc`s goes
out of scope. The main responsibility of `Rc<T>` is to ensure that destructors are called for shared
data.
The internal data here is immutable, and if a cycle of references is created, the data will be
leaked. If we want data that doesn't leak when there are cycles, we need a garbage collector.
#### Guarantees
The main guarantee provided here is that the data will not be destroyed until all references to it
are out of scope.
This should be used when we wish to dynamically allocate and share some data (read-only) between
various portions of yur program, where it is not certain which portion will finish using the pointer
last. It's a viable alternative to `&T` when `&T` is either impossible to statically check for
correctness, or creates extremely unergonomic code where the programmer does not wish to spend the
development cost of working with.
This pointer is _not_ thread safe, and Rust will not let it be sent or shared with other threads.
This lets one avoid the cost of atomics in situations where they are unnecessary.
There is a sister smart pointer to this one, `Weak<T>`. This is a non-owning, but also non-borrowed,
smart pointer. It is also similar to `&T`, but it is not restricted in lifetime&mdash;a `Weak<T>`
can be held on to forever. However, it is possible that an attempt to access the inner data may fail
and return `None`, since this can outlive the owned `Rc`s. This is useful for cyclic
data structures and other things.
#### Cost
As far as memory goes, `Rc<T>` is a single allocation, though it will allocate two extra words (i.e.
two `usize` values) as compared to a regular `Box<T>` (for "strong" and "weak" refcounts).
`Rc<T>` has the computational cost of incrementing/decrementing the refcount whenever it is cloned
or goes out of scope respectively. Note that a clone will not do a deep copy, rather it will simply
increment the inner reference count and return a copy of the `Rc<T>`.
[rc]: ../std/rc/struct.Rc.html
# Cell types
&lquo;Cell&rquo;s provide interior mutability. In other words, they contain data which can be manipulated even
if the type cannot be obtained in a mutable form (for example, when it is behind an `&`-ptr or
`Rc<T>`).
[The documentation for the `cell` module has a pretty good explanation for these][cell-mod].
These types are _generally_ found in struct fields, but they may be found elsewhere too.
## `Cell<T>`
[`Cell<T>`][cell] is a type that provides zero-cost interior mutability, but only for `Copy` types.
Since the compiler knows that all the data owned by the contained value is on the stack, there's
no worry of leaking any data behind references (or worse!) by simply replacing the data.
It is still possible to violate your own invariants using this wrapper, so be careful when using it.
If a field is wrapped in `Cell`, it's a nice indicator that the chunk of data is mutable and may not
stay the same between the time you first read it and when you intend to use it.
```rust
# use std::cell::Cell;
let x = Cell::new(1);
let y = &x;
let z = &x;
x.set(2);
y.set(3);
z.set(4);
println!("{}", x.get());
```
Note that here we were able to mutate the same value from various immutable references.
This has the same runtime cost as the following:
```rust,ignore
let mut x = 1;
let y = &mut x;
let z = &mut x;
x = 2;
*y = 3;
*z = 4;
println!("{}", x);
```
but it has the added benefit of actually compiling successfully.
#### Guarantees
This relaxes the &ldquo;no aliasing with mutability&rdquo; restriction in places where it's
unnecessary. However, this also relaxes the guarantees that the restriction provides; so if your
invariants depend on data stored within `Cell`, you should be careful.
This is useful for mutating primitives and other `Copy` types when there is no easy way of
doing it in line with the static rules of `&` and `&mut`.
`Cell` does not let you obtain interior references to the data, which makes it safe to freely
mutate.
#### Cost
There is no runtime cost to using `Cell<T>`, however if you are using it to wrap larger (`Copy`)
structs, it might be worthwhile to instead wrap individual fields in `Cell<T>` since each write is
otherwise a full copy of the struct.
## `RefCell<T>`
[`RefCell<T>`][refcell] also provides interior mutability, but isn't restricted to `Copy` types.
Instead, it has a runtime cost. `RefCell<T>` enforces the read-write lock pattern at runtime (it's
like a single-threaded mutex), unlike `&T`/`&mut T` which do so at compile time. This is done by the
`borrow()` and `borrow_mut()` functions, which modify an internal reference count and return smart
pointers which can be dereferenced immutably and mutably respectively. The refcount is restored when
the smart pointers go out of scope. With this system, we can dynamically ensure that there are never
any other borrows active when a mutable borrow is active. If the programmer attempts to make such a
borrow, the thread will panic.
```rust
# use std::cell::RefCell;
let x = RefCell::new(vec![1,2,3,4]);
{
println!("{:?}", *x.borrow())
}
{
let mut my_ref = x.borrow_mut();
my_ref.push(1);
}
```
Similar to `Cell`, this is mainly useful for situations where it's hard or impossible to satisfy the
borrow checker. Generally we know that such mutations won't happen in a nested form, but it's good
to check.
For large, complicated programs, it becomes useful to put some things in `RefCell`s to make things
simpler. For example, a lot of the maps in [the `ctxt` struct][ctxt] in the rust compiler internals
are inside this wrapper. These are only modified once (during creation, which is not right after
initialization) or a couple of times in well-separated places. However, since this struct is
pervasively used everywhere, juggling mutable and immutable pointers would be hard (perhaps
impossible) and probably form a soup of `&`-ptrs which would be hard to extend. On the other hand,
the `RefCell` provides a cheap (not zero-cost) way of safely accessing these. In the future, if
someone adds some code that attempts to modify the cell when it's already borrowed, it will cause a
(usually deterministic) panic which can be traced back to the offending borrow.
Similarly, in Servo's DOM there is a lot of mutation, most of which is local to a DOM type, but some
of which crisscrosses the DOM and modifies various things. Using `RefCell` and `Cell` to guard all
mutation lets us avoid worrying about mutability everywhere, and it simultaneously highlights the
places where mutation is _actually_ happening.
Note that `RefCell` should be avoided if a mostly simple solution is possible with `&` pointers.
#### Guarantees
`RefCell` relaxes the _static_ restrictions preventing aliased mutation, and replaces them with
_dynamic_ ones. As such the guarantees have not changed.
#### Cost
`RefCell` does not allocate, but it contains an additional "borrow state"
indicator (one word in size) along with the data.
At runtime each borrow causes a modification/check of the refcount.
[cell-mod]: ../std/cell/
[cell]: ../std/cell/struct.Cell.html
[refcell]: ../std/cell/struct.RefCell.html
[ctxt]: ../rustc/middle/ty/struct.ctxt.html
# Synchronous types
Many of the types above cannot be used in a threadsafe manner. Particularly, `Rc<T>` and
`RefCell<T>`, which both use non-atomic reference counts (_atomic_ reference counts are those which
can be incremented from multiple threads without causing a data race), cannot be used this way. This
makes them cheaper to use, but we need thread safe versions of these too. They exist, in the form of
`Arc<T>` and `Mutex<T>`/`RWLock<T>`
Note that the non-threadsafe types _cannot_ be sent between threads, and this is checked at compile
time.
There are many useful wrappers for concurrent programming in the [sync][sync] module, but only the
major ones will be covered below.
[sync]: ../std/sync/index.html
## `Arc<T>`
[`Arc<T>`][arc] is just a version of `Rc<T>` that uses an atomic reference count (hence, "Arc").
This can be sent freely between threads.
C++'s `shared_ptr` is similar to `Arc`, however in the case of C++ the inner data is always mutable.
For semantics similar to that from C++, we should use `Arc<Mutex<T>>`, `Arc<RwLock<T>>`, or
`Arc<UnsafeCell<T>>`[^4] (`UnsafeCell<T>` is a cell type that can be used to hold any data and has
no runtime cost, but accessing it requires `unsafe` blocks). The last one should only be used if we
are certain that the usage won't cause any memory unsafety. Remember that writing to a struct is not
an atomic operation, and many functions like `vec.push()` can reallocate internally and cause unsafe
behavior, so even monotonicity may not be enough to justify `UnsafeCell`.
[^4]: `Arc<UnsafeCell<T>>` actually won't compile since `UnsafeCell<T>` isn't `Send` or `Sync`, but we can wrap it in a type and implement `Send`/`Sync` for it manually to get `Arc<Wrapper<T>>` where `Wrapper` is `struct Wrapper<T>(UnsafeCell<T>)`.
#### Guarantees
Like `Rc`, this provides the (thread safe) guarantee that the destructor for the internal data will
be run when the last `Arc` goes out of scope (barring any cycles).
#### Cost
This has the added cost of using atomics for changing the refcount (which will happen whenever it is
cloned or goes out of scope). When sharing data from an `Arc` in a single thread, it is preferable
to share `&` pointers whenever possible.
[arc]: ../std/sync/struct.Arc.html
## `Mutex<T>` and `RwLock<T>`
[`Mutex<T>`][mutex] and [`RwLock<T>`][rwlock] provide mutual-exclusion via RAII guards (guards are
objects which maintain some state, like a lock, until their destructor is called). For both of
these, the mutex is opaque until we call `lock()` on it, at which point the thread will block
until a lock can be acquired, and then a guard will be returned. This guard can be used to access
the inner data (mutably), and the lock will be released when the guard goes out of scope.
```rust,ignore
{
let guard = mutex.lock();
// guard dereferences mutably to the inner type
*guard += 1;
} // lock released when destructor runs
```
`RwLock` has the added benefit of being efficient for multiple reads. It is always safe to have
multiple readers to shared data as long as there are no writers; and `RwLock` lets readers acquire a
"read lock". Such locks can be acquired concurrently and are kept track of via a reference count.
Writers must obtain a "write lock" which can only be obtained when all readers have gone out of
scope.
#### Guarantees
Both of these provide safe shared mutability across threads, however they are prone to deadlocks.
Some level of additional protocol safety can be obtained via the type system.
#### Costs
These use internal atomic-like types to maintain the locks, which are pretty costly (they can block
all memory reads across processors till they're done). Waiting on these locks can also be slow when
there's a lot of concurrent access happening.
[rwlock]: ../std/sync/struct.RwLock.html
[mutex]: ../std/sync/struct.Mutex.html
[sessions]: https://github.com/Munksgaard/rust-sessions
# Composition
A common gripe when reading Rust code is with types like `Rc<RefCell<Vec<T>>>` (or even more more
complicated compositions of such types). It's not always clear what the composition does, or why the
author chose one like this (and when one should be using such a composition in one's own code)
Usually, it's a case of composing together the guarantees that you need, without paying for stuff
that is unnecessary.
For example, `Rc<RefCell<T>>` is one such composition. `Rc<T>` itself can't be dereferenced mutably;
because `Rc<T>` provides sharing and shared mutability can lead to unsafe behavior, so we put
`RefCell<T>` inside to get dynamically verified shared mutability. Now we have shared mutable data,
but it's shared in a way that there can only be one mutator (and no readers) or multiple readers.
Now, we can take this a step further, and have `Rc<RefCell<Vec<T>>>` or `Rc<Vec<RefCell<T>>>`. These
are both shareable, mutable vectors, but they're not the same.
With the former, the `RefCell<T>` is wrapping the `Vec<T>`, so the `Vec<T>` in its entirety is
mutable. At the same time, there can only be one mutable borrow of the whole `Vec` at a given time.
This means that your code cannot simultaneously work on different elements of the vector from
different `Rc` handles. However, we are able to push and pop from the `Vec<T>` at will. This is
similar to an `&mut Vec<T>` with the borrow checking done at runtime.
With the latter, the borrowing is of individual elements, but the overall vector is immutable. Thus,
we can independently borrow separate elements, but we cannot push or pop from the vector. This is
similar to an `&mut [T]`[^3], but, again, the borrow checking is at runtime.
In concurrent programs, we have a similar situation with `Arc<Mutex<T>>`, which provides shared
mutability and ownership.
When reading code that uses these, go in step by step and look at the guarantees/costs provided.
When choosing a composed type, we must do the reverse; figure out which guarantees we want, and at
which point of the composition we need them. For example, if there is a choice between
`Vec<RefCell<T>>` and `RefCell<Vec<T>>`, we should figure out the tradeoffs as done above and pick
one.
[^3]: `&[T]` and `&mut [T]` are _slices_; they consist of a pointer and a length and can refer to a portion of a vector or array. `&mut [T]` can have its elements mutated, however its length cannot be touched.